Teaching English Language

Teaching English Language

The Relationship between Students' Self-Regulated Learning and Reading Comprehension in Iranian Online Classes in the COVID Era

Document Type : Original Article

Author
English Department, Faculty of Humanities, Shahid Rajaee Teacher Training University, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
In the wake of the COVID 19 pandemic, online instruction has become essential. It requires its teaching and research methods, and many social and psychological factors are at play here. One such factor is self-regulation, which is believed to affect learning. To clarify this issue, the present study used Cho and Cho's (2017) online self-regulation questionnaire with 30 items on a Likert scale and the reading comprehension section of the English Test as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) with 40 items. The instruments were adapted to Google Forms and sent to 297 students via a university LMS in 2021. 184 students returned the questionnaire, of which 12 had to be removed because the responses showed traces of inattention. The remaining 172 responses and their respective reading grades were analyzed via a one-sample t-test. The results confirmed that students' performance on the TOEFL test and self-regulation levels were satisfactory. A bivariate correlation, though, revealed no statistically significant relationship between these variables. There are several explanations for this result (e.g., online instruction was not voluntary for participants). Possibly, students were not motivated to learn. They may not have the necessary skills and tools for this type of instruction. However, simultaneous quantile regression showed that the high-achieving students in the present sample could apply their strategies of self-regulation in online English classes.
Keywords

Ally, M. (2004). Foundations of educational theory for online learning. In T. Anderson (Ed.), The Theory and Practice of Online Learning. AU Press.  
Arabzadeh, M., Kadivar, I. P., & Delavar, A. (2012). The effects of teaching self-regulated learning strategy on students' academic delay of gratification. Interdisciplinary Journal of Contemporary Research in Business, 4 (2),580– 587.                                               
Azevedo, R., & V. Aleven, V. (Eds.). (2013). Springer international handbooks of education. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4419-5546-3
Azevedo, R., Feyzi-Behnagh, R., Duffy, M., Harley, J., and Trevors, G. (2012).  Metacognition and self-regulated learning in student-centred learning environments. In D. Jonassen and S.L and (Eds.), Theoretical foundations of student-centred learning environments. Routledge.     
Azevedo, R., Johnson, A., Chauncey, A., & Burkett, C. (2010). Self-regulated learning with Meta-Tutor: Advancing the science of learning with Meta-Cognitive tools. In M. Khine and I. Saleh (Eds.), New science of learning:   Computers, cognition, and collaboration in education. Springer.  
Azevedo, R., Moos, D. C., Greene, J. A., Winters, F. I., & Cromley, J. G. (2007). Why is externally-facilitated regulated learning more effective than self-regulated learning with hypermedia? Educational Technology Research and Development, 56(1), 45–72. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11423-007-9067-0
‌Azevedo, R., Taub, M., & Mudrick, N. V. (2018). Understanding and reasoning about real-time cognitive, affective, and metacognitive processes to foster self-regulation with advanced learning technologies. In D. H. Schunk and J. A. Greene (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (2nd ed.). Routledge.                                                                                                          
Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory.      Prentice-Hall.
‌Barta, A., Tamás, B., Gálfi, B., & Szamosközi, I. (2021). Time Perspectives as The Predictors of Online Self-Regulated Learning. Journal of e-learning Research, 1(2), 32-40. https://doi.org/10.33422/jelr.v1i2.73
Biswas, G., Baker, R., and Paquette, L. (2018). Data mining methods for assessing self-    regulated learning. In D. H. Schunk and J. A. Greene (Eds.), Handbook of self- regulation of learning and performance (2nded.). Routledge.
Boekaerts, M., Pintrich, P., & Zeidner, M. (2000). Self-Regulation: An Introductory Overview. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, & M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-Regulation. Academic Press. Doi: 10.1016/B978–012109890–2/50030–5.              
Butler, D. L. (2015). Metacognition and self-regulation in learning. In D. Scott & E.   Hargreaves (Eds.), The SAGE handbook on learning. Sage.     
Cengiz-Istanbulu, B., & Sakiz, G. (2022). Self-regulated learning strategies impact fourth-grade students’ positive outcomes in science class. Journal of Baltic Science Education, 21(2), 192-206. DOI: 10.33225/jbse/22.21.192
Chen, C.-M., & Huang, S.-H. (2013). Web-based reading annotation system with an attention-based self-regulated learning mechanism for promoting reading performance. British Journal of Educational Technology45(5), 959–980. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjet.12119
‌Chiu, Y.-L., Liang, J.-C., & Tsai, C.-C. (2013). Internet-specific epistemic beliefs and self-regulated learning in online academic information searching. Metacognition and Learning8(3), 235–260. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11409-013-9103-x
Cho, M.-H., & Cho, Y. (2017). Self-regulation in three types of online interaction: a scale development. Distance Education38(1), 70–83. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2017.1299563
Cho, M.-H., & Shen, D. (2013). Self-regulation in online learning. Distance Education34(3), 290–301. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2013.835770
‌Cho, M.H., Demei, S. & Laffey, J. (2010). Relationships Between Self-Regulation and Social Experiences in Asynchronous Online Learning Environments. Journal of Interactive Learning Research, 21(3), 297-316 https://www.learntechlib.org/primary/p/29491/.
Clark, N. M. (2013). The use of self-regulation interventions in physical education and sport contexts. In H. Bembenutty, T. J. Cleary, and A. Kitsantas (Eds.), Applications of self-regulated learning in diverse disciplines. Information Age Publishing.  
Cleary, T. J. (Ed.). (2015). Self-regulated interventions with at-risk youth:                                      Enhancing adaptability, performance, and well-being. American Psychological Association.
Cleary, T., and Callan, G. (2018). Assessing self-regulated learning using microanalytic methods. In D. H. Schunk and J. A. Greene (Eds.), Handbook of self- regulation of learning and performance (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Davis, S. K., & Hadwin, A. F. (2021). Exploring differences in psychological well-being and self-regulated learning in university student success. Frontline Learning Research, 9(1), 30–43. https://doi.org/10.14786/flr.v9i1.581
Duffy, M. C., & Azevedo, R. (2015). Motivation matters: Interactions between achievement goals and agent scaffolding for self-regulated learning within an intelligent tutoring system. Computers in Human Behavior52, 338–348. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2015.05.041
‌ Duffy, M., Harley, J., and Trevors, G. (2012). Metacognition and self-regulated learning in student-centered learning environments. In D. Jonassen and S.L and (Eds.), Theoretical foundations of student-center learning environments. Routledge.     
Dunn, K. E., Rakes, G. C., & Rakes, T. A. (2014). Influence of academic self-regulation, critical thinking, and age on online graduate students’ academic help-seeking. Distance Education35(1), 75–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2014.891426
Efklides, A. (2012). Commentary: How readily can findings from basic cognitive psychology research be applied in the classroom? Learning and Instruction22(4), 290–295. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.learninstruc.2012.01.001
‌ Elfakki, F. A. M., Alamri, M. M., Ashraful, I., Elnimeiri, M., & Frah, E. (2021). Self-Regulated Learning in the University of Tabuk: gender differences in strategy and outcomes. Rwanda Journal of Medicine and Health Sciences, 4(1), 151–165. https://doi.org/10.4314/rjmhs.v4i1.11
 E-learning Fundamentals in Iran. (1390 Hejeria). Ministry of Science, Research and Technology. https://www.msrt.ir/fa
Greene, J. A., & Azevedo, R. (2009). A macro-level analysis of SRL processes and their relations to the acquisition of a sophisticated mental model of a complex system. Contemporary Educational Psychology34(1), 18–29. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cedpsych.2008.05.006
‌Hadwin, A., Järvelä, S., & Miller, M. (2018). Self-regulation, co-regulation, and shared regulation in collaborative learning environments. In D. H Schunk. & J. A. Greene (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (2nd ed.). Routledge. 
Hodges, C. B., & Kim, C. (2010). Email, Self-Regulation, Self-Efficacy, and Achievement in a College Online Mathematics Course. Journal of Educational Computing Research43(2), 207–223. https://doi.org/10.2190/ec.43.2.d
‌Hofer, B. K., & Pintrich, P. R. (1997). The Development of Epistemological Theories: Beliefs About Knowledge and Knowing and Their Relation to Learning. Review of Educational Research67(1), 88–140. https://doi.org/10.3102/00346543067001088
‌Huang, J., & Prochner, L. (2003). Chinese Parenting Styles and Children’s Self-Regulated Learning. Journal of Research in Childhood Education18(3), 227–238. https://doi.org/10.1080/02568540409595037‌
Järvenoja, H., Järvelä, S., & Malmberg, J. (2015). Understanding Regulated Learning in Situative and Contextual Frameworks. Educational Psychologist50(3), 204–219. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2015.1075400
‌Kaplan, A., Neuber, A.  &. Garner, J.K. (2019): An identity systems perspective on high ability in self-regulated learning, High Ability Studies, DOI: 10.1080/13598139.2019.1568830
King, R. B., & Ganotice, F. A. (2015). Does family obligation matter for students’ motivation, engagement, and well-being? It depends on your self-construal. Personality and Individual Differences86, 243–248. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2015.06.027
‌ Klingsieck, K. B., Fries, S., Horz, C., & Hofer, M. (2012). Procrastination in a distance university setting. Distance Education33(3), 295–310. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2012.723165
Kreijns, K., Kirschner, P. A., & Vermeulen, M. (2013). Social Aspects of CSCL Environments: A Research Framework. Educational Psychologist48(4), 229–242. https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2012.750225
‌ Li, S., Chen, G., Xing, W., Zheng, J., & Xie, C. (2020). Longitudinal clustering of students’ selfregulated learning behaviors in engineering design. Computers & Education, 153, 103899. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compedu.2020.103899
 Muis, K. R., & Singh, C. (2018). The three faces of epistemic thinking in self-regulated learning. In D. H. Schunk & J. A. Greene (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Ommundsen, Y., Haugen, R., and Lund, T. (2005). Academic self-concept, implicit theories of ability, and self-regulation strategies. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 49, 461–474. DOI: 10.1080/0031383057838.
Perry, N. E., and Rahim, A. (2011). Studying self-regulated learning in classrooms. In B. J.         Zimmerman & D. H. Schunk (Eds.), Educational psychology handbook series. Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance. Routledge/Taylor and Francis Group.
Pintrich, P. R., Smith, D. A. F., Garcia, T., & Mckeachie, W. J. (1993). Reliability and Predictive Validity of the Motivated Strategies for Learning Questionnaire (Mslq). Educational and Psychological Measurement53(3), 801–813. https://doi.org/10.1177/0013164493053003024
‌Poll, K. and Weller, S. (2014). Six Instructional Best Practices for Online Engagement and Retention. The Journal of Online Doctoral Education: 56-72.                                                                                                              
Puzziferro, M. (2008). Online Technologies Self-Efficacy and Self-Regulated Learning as Predictors of Final Grade and Satisfaction in College-Level Online Courses. American Journal of Distance Education22(2), 72–89. https://doi.org/10.1080/08923640802039024
‌Reimann, P., and Bannert, M. (2018). Self-regulation of learning and performance in   computer-supported collaborative learning environments. In D. H. Schunk & J. A. Greene (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and performance (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Schunk, D. H. (2008). Metacognition, Self-Regulation, and Self-Regulated Learning: Research Recommendations. Educational Psychology Review20(4), 463–467. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10648-008-9086-3
Schunk, D. H., and Usher, E. L. (2012). Social cognitive theory and motivation. In R. M.  Ryan (Ed.), The Oxford handbook of human motivation. Oxford University Press.
Serdyukov, P., and Hill, R. (2013). Flying with clipped wings: are students independent in         online college classes? Journal of Research in Innovative Teaching, 6(1), 54– 67.
Song, L., Singleton, E. S., Hill, J. R., & Koh, M. H. (2004). Improving online learning: Student perceptions of useful and challenging characteristics. The Internet and Higher Education7(1), 59–70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.iheduc.2003.11.003
‌Sun, J. C.-Y., & Rueda, R. (2011). Situational interest, computer self-efficacy and self- regulation: Their impact on student engagement in distance education. British Journal of Educational Technology43(2), 191–204. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8535.2010.01157.x
‌Suveg, C., Davis, M., and Jones, A. (2015). Emotion regulation interventions for youth with anxiety disorders. In T. Cleary (Ed.), Self-regulated interventions with at-risk youth: Enhancing adaptability, performance, and wellbeing. American Psychological Association. 
Tang, M., & Neber, H. (2008). Motivation and self‐regulated science learning in high‐achieving students: differences related to nation, gender, and grade‐level. High Ability Studies19(2), 103–116. https://doi.org/10.1080/13598130802503959
Usher, E. L., and Schunk, D. H. (2018). Social cognitive theoretical perspective of self-regulation. In D. H. Schunk and J. A. Greene (Eds.), Handbook of self- regulation of learning and performance (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Wandler, J., & Imbriale, W. J. (2017). Promoting College Student Self-Regulation in Online Learning Environments. Online Learning21(2). https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v21i2.881‌
Wang, C.-H., Shannon, D. M., & Ross, M. E. (2013). Students’ characteristics, self-regulated learning, technology self-efficacy, and course outcomes in online learning. Distance Education34(3), 302–323. https://doi.org/10.1080/01587919.2013.835779
‌Winne, P. H. (2018). Cognition and metacognition within self-regulated learning. In D. H.         Schunk and J. A. Greene (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation of learning and            performance (2nd ed.). New York: Routledge.
Winne, P. H., and Hadwin, A. F. (1998). Studying as self-regulated learning. In D. J. Hacker, J. Dunlosky, & A. C. Graesser (Eds.), Metacognition in educational          theory and practice. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Zeidner, M., Boekaerts, M., & Pintrich, P. R. (2000). Self-regulation: Directions and                  challenges for future research. In M. Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, and Moshe   Zeidner (Eds.), Handbooik of self-regulation. Academic Press.
Zhu, C., Valcke, M., & Schellens, T. (2008). A cross-cultural study of Chinese and Flemish university students: Do they differ in learning conceptions and approaches to learning? Learning and Individual Differences18(1), 120–127. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2007.07.004
‌Zimmerman, B. J. (1989). A social cognitive view of self-regulated academic learning. Journal of Educational Psychology, 81(3), 329–339. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.81.3.329
‌Zimmerman, B. J. (2000). Attaining self-regulation: A social-cognitive perspective. In M.           Boekaerts, P. R. Pintrich, and M. Zeidner (Eds.), Handbook of self-regulation.  Academic Press.
Zimmerman, B. J. (2008). Investigating self-regulation and motivation: historical background, methodological developments, and future prospects. American Educational Research Journal45(1), 166–183. https://doi.org/10.3102/0002831207312909
‌Zimmerman, B. J. (2011). Motivational sources and outcomes of self-regulated learning and Learning and Performance. Routledge.